11. Checking Components
So you've put a circuit together and as far as you know everything appears to be ok, but it doesn't work as expected. Even worse, it refuses to give any signs of life. What do you do? First, check the circuit for mechanical failures, like non-connected wires, broken vias on the board (these are holes on the printed circuit board that have a metal coating down the length of the hole to connect one side of the board to the other), bad battery contacts inside the case, broken pins on a component, cold solder joints, etc.
If this doesn't come up with a result, you should compare values of components with the schematic.
You may have put a component in the wrong place, or read values the wrong way. Maybe you forgot k in front of Ohms. Maybe you connected the supply to the wrong pin of an IC.
The next step is to test each component on the board.
Start troubleshooting by measuring DC voltages at certain points of the board, and comparing these values to the schematic. So, by knowing the operation of the circuit you start the process of elimination to find the “suspect” component.
If there are several “suspects”, and this is not a rare occurrence in complex devices, the testing is divided into groups of components. You start checking in reverse soldering order, this means you start with components last soldered, because those are the most sensitive components on the circuit like integrated circuits, transistors, diodes, etc.
The fastest and simplest method to troubleshoot is to use an “ohm-meter.”
In most cases you don't have an ohm-meter by itself as it is usually aded to an ammeter and voltmeter in one instrument, called AVO meter or multimeter.
The safest and most accurate method is to desolder the component from the board when testing it, because other components could lead to a wrong diagnosis, so you have to be very careful when testing in-circuit.
Ok, you should know something about multimeters now. There are two kinds: analog and digital. Analog ones are items of the past, and since they use a needle to tell you values, it can be difficult determining the right value. Digital meters, on the other hand have a display. You should go for this type, although both come in different sizes and with different ranges. Their price is from several dollars, to several hundreds of dollars for really good professional types.
Two instruments are shown in 11.1.
If this doesn't come up with a result, you should compare values of components with the schematic.
You may have put a component in the wrong place, or read values the wrong way. Maybe you forgot k in front of Ohms. Maybe you connected the supply to the wrong pin of an IC.
The next step is to test each component on the board.
Start troubleshooting by measuring DC voltages at certain points of the board, and comparing these values to the schematic. So, by knowing the operation of the circuit you start the process of elimination to find the “suspect” component.
If there are several “suspects”, and this is not a rare occurrence in complex devices, the testing is divided into groups of components. You start checking in reverse soldering order, this means you start with components last soldered, because those are the most sensitive components on the circuit like integrated circuits, transistors, diodes, etc.
The fastest and simplest method to troubleshoot is to use an “ohm-meter.”
In most cases you don't have an ohm-meter by itself as it is usually aded to an ammeter and voltmeter in one instrument, called AVO meter or multimeter.
The safest and most accurate method is to desolder the component from the board when testing it, because other components could lead to a wrong diagnosis, so you have to be very careful when testing in-circuit.
Ok, you should know something about multimeters now. There are two kinds: analog and digital. Analog ones are items of the past, and since they use a needle to tell you values, it can be difficult determining the right value. Digital meters, on the other hand have a display. You should go for this type, although both come in different sizes and with different ranges. Their price is from several dollars, to several hundreds of dollars for really good professional types.Two instruments are shown in 11.1.
11.1 Diodes and Transistors
When using an analog instrument to test a diode, the needle will swing almost fully across the scale when the diode is placed in one direction and hardly move when the diode is reversed.The needle does not measure the resistance of the diode but rather the flow of current in one direction and no current-flow in the other direction.
If the value is equal to or near equal, either low or high in both directions, the diode is faulty, and should be replaced.
Digital instruments have a position on the dial to measure diodes, as shown in 11.1b. When we connect probes to each other, the multimeter should buzz, which signals a short circuit, and display tells 0. When we separate the probes the buzzing stops, and a symbol for open circuit is displayed (this can be either 0L or 1). Now we 
connect probes to the diode (11.3a). Then we reverse the diode and connect it again (11.3b). If the measured diode was ok, one of the two measurements would have shown a value which represents a minimum voltage that could be conducted through the diode (between 400mV and 800mV), and the anode is the end of the diode which is connected to probe A (red one). The diode is faulty if you hear a buzz (closed circuit) or some value which represents infinity.
Transistors are tested in a similar fashion, since they act as two connected diodes. According to 11.4b, the positive probe is connected to the base, and the negative probe is first connected to the collector and then the emitter. In both cases the resistance should be low. After that, you do the same thing, only with switched probes. The negative probe is connected to the base and you test the collector and emitter with a positive probe.
Both cases should produce a high value on the meter.
When testing PNP transistors, all steps are the same, but the measurements should be opposite: on 11.4a they are high, and on 11.4c they are low.
If you test transistors using a digital instrument, the process remains similar to the one with diodes. Each diode should produce a value between 400mV and 800mV. Many modern digital multimeters have a socket for testing transistors. There is, as displayed on 11.5, a special socket where low and medium power transistors fit. If you need to test high power transistors, thin wires (0.8mm) should be soldered to transistor's pins and then plugged into the socket. As displayed on 11.5, a transistor is plugged into the socket according to its type (PNP or NPN) and the switch with a hFE marking is brought into position. If the transistor works, the display shows a value which represents the current amplification coefficient. If, for example, a transistor is tested, and the display shows 74, this means the collector current is 74 times higher than the base current.
connect probes to the diode (11.3a). Then we reverse the diode and connect it again (11.3b). If the measured diode was ok, one of the two measurements would have shown a value which represents a minimum voltage that could be conducted through the diode (between 400mV and 800mV), and the anode is the end of the diode which is connected to probe A (red one). The diode is faulty if you hear a buzz (closed circuit) or some value which represents infinity.Transistors are tested in a similar fashion, since they act as two connected diodes. According to 11.4b, the positive probe is connected to the base, and the negative probe is first connected to the collector and then the emitter. In both cases the resistance should be low. After that, you do the same thing, only with switched probes. The negative probe is connected to the base and you test the collector and emitter with a positive probe.
Both cases should produce a high value on the meter.
When testing PNP transistors, all steps are the same, but the measurements should be opposite: on 11.4a they are high, and on 11.4c they are low.If you test transistors using a digital instrument, the process remains similar to the one with diodes. Each diode should produce a value between 400mV and 800mV. Many modern digital multimeters have a socket for testing transistors. There is, as displayed on 11.5, a special socket where low and medium power transistors fit. If you need to test high power transistors, thin wires (0.8mm) should be soldered to transistor's pins and then plugged into the socket. As displayed on 11.5, a transistor is plugged into the socket according to its type (PNP or NPN) and the switch with a hFE marking is brought into position. If the transistor works, the display shows a value which represents the current amplification coefficient. If, for example, a transistor is tested, and the display shows 74, this means the collector current is 74 times higher than the base current.
11.2 Transformers and coils
Transformers are tested by measuring the resistance of the copper wire on the primary and secondary. Since the primary has more turns than the secondary, and is wound using a thinner wire, its resistance is higher, and its value is in range of tens of ohms (in high power transformers) to several hundreds of ohms.
Secondary resistance is lower and is in range between several ohms to several tens of ohms, where the principle of inverse relations is still in place, high power means low resistance.
If the multimeter shows an infinite value, it means the coil is either poorly connected or the turns are disconnected at some point.
Coils can be tested in the same way as transformers – through their resistance. All principles remain the same as with transformers. Infinite resistance means an open winding.
Secondary resistance is lower and is in range between several ohms to several tens of ohms, where the principle of inverse relations is still in place, high power means low resistance.
If the multimeter shows an infinite value, it means the coil is either poorly connected or the turns are disconnected at some point.
Coils can be tested in the same way as transformers – through their resistance. All principles remain the same as with transformers. Infinite resistance means an open winding.
11.3 Capacitors
Capacitors should produce an infinite reading on a multimeter. Exceptions are electrolytics and very high value block capacitors. When the positive end of an electrolytic capacitor is connected to the positive probe of an analog instrument, and a negative end to a negative probe, the needle moves slightly and gradually comes back towards infinity. This is proof the capacitor is ok, and the needle's movement is charge being stored in the capacitor. (Even small capacitors get charged while testing.)
Variable capacitors are tested by connecting an ohm-meter to them, and turning the rotor. The needle should point to infinity at all times, because any other value means the plates of the rotor and stator are touching at some point.
There are digital meters that have the ability to measure capacitance, which simplifies the process. With this said, it is worth mentioning that capacitors have considerably wider tolerance than resistors, (about 20%).
Variable capacitors are tested by connecting an ohm-meter to them, and turning the rotor. The needle should point to infinity at all times, because any other value means the plates of the rotor and stator are touching at some point.
There are digital meters that have the ability to measure capacitance, which simplifies the process. With this said, it is worth mentioning that capacitors have considerably wider tolerance than resistors, (about 20%).
11.4 Potentiometers
To test a potentiometer, (pot), or a variable resistor, the process is rather simple – you connect the component to the probes of a meter set to ohms and turn the shaft.
(A “noisy” pot can be repaired using a special spray.)
(A “noisy” pot can be repaired using a special spray.)
11.5 Speakers and headphones
When testing speakers, their voice-coil can be between 1.5 and 32 Ohms. The value marked on the speaker is an impedance value and the actual DC resistance will be lower. When measuring a speaker with an analogue meter, you should hear a click when the probes are connected.
